Film, Radio and TV - 28 |
Television Programming
Probably the highest stakes "game" in the world is television programming. According to how well the players do in this game, hundreds of millions of dollars are won and lost each year. The players are primarily the New York network executives who decide what programs should and should not be on U.S. networks, on what day they should be scheduled, and in what time slots. The programs that come before and after each show must be carefully weighed, as well as what the other networks are offering in each of these same time slots. Added to this are target audience demographics, promotion, and advertiser appeal. Each of these factors is crucial for having a successful show, and a successful season. In this module, we'll look at the strategies for this high-stakes business game. We'll also provide some insight into why some programs succeed and some disappear from television after a short time--and even why many programs that are developed are never aired. |
| Considerations
In TV Even though predicting the elements of a successful TV show is far from being a science, there are some guidelines. First, we'll discuss some scheduling and success factors for prime-time dramatic shows and sitcoms. But, even before we get to that, you'll want to consider your own perspective on "good" and "bad" shows. First, you have to accept the fact that you are probably "abnormal." (Sorry!)
But, don't despair; that's probably good. (Who wants to be "average," anyway?) If you are in college and of college age, that makes you "non-normal" in itself. Most TV viewers do not have a college education, and they are older than you are. That means that they will probably like and dislike different things in life--including TV programs. Viewers who say, "That program is terrible, why does it stay on TV?," or, "That was such a great show, why isn't it on any more?", aren't taking this into consideration. The Program Managers of TV stations where I've worked often scheduled programs they didn't personally care for--but the ratings showed that a large share of the audience did like them. So, if they wanted to keep their jobs....
In almost any game, aiming at the wrong target can mean you lose For example, if you are scheduling a program for a network or local station that's opposite "Monday Night Football" (an extremely popular TV series with men, in case you've just arrived from another planet), you will probably not chose another program that appeals to men. Unless you have something that will draw more men than the major football teams--and that would be difficult--you would probably be better off scheduling a program that appeals to women who aren't interested in football. This technique is referred to as counterprogramming. Counterprogramming can also involve other demographic characteristics. For a program that appeals to an older audience, you might want to counterprogram with something that appeals to a younger audience. For a program that appeals to a sophisticated audience, think about a program that appeals to a not-so-sophisticated audience.
Although advertisers are interested in the number of viewers that watch a show, they are even more interested in the show's demographics (the age, sex, social economic status, education, and buying habits of an audience). In fact, demographics are important to advertisers in any of the mass media: TV, radio, newspapers, magazines and books.
The audience that leads into your show is critical. Viewers tend to stick with the channel they are viewing unless they have a good reason to change. And if the show that follows the one they are viewing is of the same type and appeals to the same demographics, they may not be motivated to switch channels (especially if the show that follows is promoted and catches viewer interest). This factor used to be much more important when viewers had to get up and walk to their TV sets to change channels. Now, of course, they can do that with the remote control. Even so, if your show comes after one that has high ratings, your show will benefit through audience flow. When a station or network schedules a number of programs consecutively that have a similar demographic appeal, this is referred to as stacking. Often, networks will stack a series of sitcoms together, for example, assuming that audience flow will hold viewers for several hours. By putting a new or weak show between two popular shows, Rather than switch channels between two strong shows (and maybe join a program in progress on another network, or be forced to tune away from it before it ends) audiences tend to stay with the network--even if they try to do something else during the interval. This, of course, helps the new or weaker show--and may result in it "catching on" and becoming popular in its own right.
Somewhat related is the concept of tentpoling, or using popular, well-established TV shows scheduled in pivotal time periods to boost the ratings of the shows around them.
You often see stunting (using special programming or plot gimmicks) used by networks during sweeps (the four weeks or so when ratings are done) in an effort to boost audience size. For example, you may find that a key person in a dramatic series gets married, has a baby, gets shot, or whatever. In the early 90s, it was discovered that weddings could boost a show's ratings by about three points--so a lot of people suddenly got married. Another stunting technique is to have a famous person appear in an episode--typically, a famous actor, political figure, athlete, or singer. In each of these cases, "the event" is heavily touted in promos (on-air promotions for the show). During the 2002-2003 season, for example, Boston Public on FOX featured Whitney Houston, and Monica Lewinsky (the infamous White House intern during the Clinton administration) was featured on their "Mr. Personality" show. During the same ratings season NBC expanded two of its most popular shows, Friends and Will & Grace to 40 minutes--just long enough to encroach on the start of programming on competing networks (and we assume impact their ratings). And then there were the "reunion shows" that brought back the casts of popular past shows "one more time." One of the most famous instances of stunting was when a key actor in the "Dallas" series (a man who everyone loved to hate) was shot by an unknown person and rushed to the hospital just as the series ended for the season. Over the summer, the secret as to "who shot J.R." was afforded Several versions of the subsequent episode were filmed, and no one knew for sure which version would air. It was rumored that the tabloid press offered a six-figure sum to anyone with the series who would reveal the killer's identity before the new season began. When the series did start again, more people were watching in the United States than voted in the previous presidential election. The worldwide audience for the beginning episode of "Dallas" was something of a record: 300 million people. And, in case you're wondering, a girlfriend, not to be confused with his wife in the series, shot J.R.--and he lived. (How else could the series continue?)
Local stations--especially those not affiliated with a network--are left to their own devices to compete for ratings. Although it's hard to compete against first-run network programming, local stations often capture at least three percent of the available audience (a critical figure when it comes to getting national advertising) if they run syndicated shows. You may recall that syndicated shows are shows that ran on the networks and are subsequently sold in package deals to local stations. Even though these programs have already aired, people may not have seen them, or, if they have, they may want to see them again. Shows like Law & Order, and Frazer have done very well in syndication. In a strategy called stripping, episodes of the same syndicated series are scheduled Monday through Friday at the same time. Not having to wait an entire week to see the next episode of a series is an attractive option to many viewers. Marathons are popular on some local stations, and on cable and satellite channels such as A&E. For example, a half-dozen episodes of Law and Order, Stargate SG1, Startrek, or even the old The Twilight Zone series might be scheduled with the potential of holding loyal fans for several hours. Marathons often take place on weekends and during holiday periods when viewers are apt to have more time to watch TV.
Generally speaking, people who have to get up early to be at work and possibly have to get their kids off to school, do not watch much late-night television. The people who do tend to watch them have jobs where they telecommute (work at home via computer), set their own hours, or can get to work at 9 a.m. or later. People in farm belt areas will typically be tuning in at 5 a.m. for grain, weather, and market reports. At these times, local stations are apt to run commercials geared to agricultural interests. Advertisers typically do not buy advertising time in programs based on their personal likes and dislikes about a show. Often, they won't even know in what shows their commercials will appear. They base their decisions on audience numbers and demographics. They want to know how many of the "right kind of people" (age, sex, socioeconomic status, urban-rural, etc.) will be watching their commercials. Thursday nights tend to be very popular with network advertisers simply because there are more viewers. Saturday nights have the least number of network viewers. At the same time Saturday nights have the highest number of video rentals and viewers for pay-cable services, such as HBO (See table below.) The number of viewers changes to some degree, depending on seasonal program schedules. However, during most TV seasons viewing has tended to peak at 9 p.m. on every week night except Saturday, when it peaks at 10 p.m. (These are prime time hours.) Apparently many viewers spend most of Saturday evenings doing other things, such as going out to eat. Note the table below, which lists the top 10 prime time cable networks for the mid-2003 season. Viewers are in millions. The numbers in parentheses show the data of each of these networks over the entire day, rather than just during prime time. In this case, for example, Nickelodeon is in first place. Note that some networks are tied (have the same rankings).
The graph below shows how a sample of about 500 people responded to questions on what they like to view in sitcoms and dramatic shows. Interestingly, gun violence, a major element in dramatic productions, ends up being in last place. This fact would raise some questions about a possible difference between what people say they like and what they actually view. Although the above graph may be accurate, it must be kept in mind that there is evidence to support the contention that in interviews and questionnaires people tend to "fudge" toward socially acceptable answers.
After
suffering some setbacks as a result of scandals among
popular TV evangelists, the area of religious broadcasting has
made a rebound and is again growing rapidly. Although this is not as significant as it used to be, there are some sponsors that want to be associated with a show that will bring them prestige, such as a well-reviewed dramatic series, a documentary, or a show that is up for awards. Although this type of show may not pull in high ratings (unfortunately), these sponsors feel that the show's prestige will make up for that by "rubbing off" on their company or products.
Even good shows can fail if they fall victim to unfortunate scheduling. We've already covered some scheduling strategies, but let's add one more. If your show is scheduled against a popular and well-established show on another network, your ratings will probably be poor. If your show is not moved (and assuming it doesn't rather quickly generate some significant ratings), it will probably be canceled. Good show; bad time slot.
Although there is no "sure- fire" list of success factors for TV shows (otherwise there wouldn't be such a large percentage of shows that fail each season), we can list some factors that have been associated with success. 1. Roles
and actor "chemistry" In order to create lively and dramatic interplay, your key actors must be distinctively different; i.e., they must have sufficient contrast in looks, personality, and actions. The actors must have believable roles and believable dialogue especially tailored to their character (as opposed to having dialogue that any other character could say). An aspect of chemistry is likeability. Although it's almost mandatory to have "bad guys and gals" in order to have conflict (to be discussed below), there should be at least one character that the audience can relate to, or possibly admire--even if that character does regularly demonstrate human failings. There should be enough character development in the production that the audience has an opportunity to care about key characters and what happens to them. Successful shows such as CSI, Frazer, and Friends have characters that audiences get to know and care about. Some script strategists classify characters according to "good-good," good-bad," "bad-good," and "bad-bad."
These same strategists say that characters should stick to their defined nature--be consistent. Audiences get comfortable with the nature of characters, and to suddenly change them is not only disturbing, but probably also unrealistic. (Audiences even complain when a character changes his or her hair style.) At the same time, in long-form drama, character growth or change over time is important. We like to see gradual (and believable) change in characters. They should learn by their mistakes. Sometimes this change is considered bad, or negative--typically with negative consequences. But, at least things don't remain static, and the story doesn't move in totally predictable directions. 2. Fresh, engaging story ideas and production techniques. One rogue says that a "new idea" in Hollywood is one that hasn't been used in 90 days. The book of Psalms says there's nothing new under the sun. Even so, you know how quickly you will change the channel when you get the feeling that you can easily guess the progress of a drama, including how it's going to come out. Although there may not be any totally new story concepts--how many times have you seen boy-meets-girl; boy-loses-girl; boy-gets girl-back-again"?--there can be new twists, new personalities, new subplots, new production techniques, and new ways of telling stories. This includes important "ahead of the curve" elements, as discussed in some detail in Module 7. 3. Energy, pace, tension, and excitement. If you look at films and TV programs done a few decades ago, you will probably be struck by the fact that they are less sophisticated in structure and production techniques than today's shows. They also tend to move more slowly. If you ask a friend about a move and she says, "It moved kinda slow," that will probably be a film you avoid seeing. Slow is boring. In this MTV-era we have gotten used to stories--generally multiple stories or subplots within a single drama--that move rapidly. The pace of a show is largely psychological. Although time is generally compressed in dramatic stories, sometimes a simple event will be stretched out far beyond its normal (clock) time to add drama, tension, and excitement. (Ever see the 90-second timer on a bomb take 10 minutes of story time?) Although story pace and editing are important, a large part of the tension and excitement of a production is provided by (good) acting. The best actors can make every scene so involving that you will not want to turn away. 4. Conflict. Although we've already wandered a bit into this area, an engaging production must have obstacles to overcome, be it internal struggles, a clash of personalities or ideas, or overt physical battles. The writer must build into the script certain "collisions" between characters, ideologies, or goals. Seeing how the characters deal with these is the essence of good drama. Successful comedy is also based on the collision of ideas, goals, or attitudes. Engaging news stories and documentaries should highlight the differences between opposing views. To allow this, we must forcefully present different sides of issues. One-sided presentations views of issues not only tend to be boring, they are professionally unethical. Even so, there is often great pressure on news and documentary producers pressure groups to just present the sides of stories they agree with. If you think about it, all great drama centers on conflict and misunderstanding. In the case of comedy we are often entertained by misunderstandings, and the struggle to set things right. In the case of drama and documentaries, we should be emotionally pulled into the struggle. 5. Durability. Ongoing series must be able to sustain viewer interest across multiple episodes. For one thing, this means that the story concept must present a variety of ongoing options. Detectives, doctors, lawyers, and police can confront a variety of cases in a variety of locations, whereas a story centered entirely in a home will have limited story options. Most series have a variety of key characters--typically six to ten--each of which may have friends and acquaintances that can introduce story elements. In order not to run out of story ideas, some series have been forced to completely shift story locations and introduce new characters. "Uprooting" things in this way can be risky. It often comes down to the lesser of the two evils: upsetting audiences that have become comfortable with the characters and their locations, or running out of good story ideas. Durability also relates to whether you get tired of characters and their roles (and limited story ideas), or whether the characters are engaging and likable enough to keep you coming back week after week. Eventually, all series run their course. Some hang on until they are canceled by low ratings; others know when their popularity (or their story ideas) have peaked, and bow out while they are still held in high esteem. The latter will positively affect both acting careers and the syndication of the series. A series that has durability should do well in syndication. (Don't we all have friends who never seem to get tired of seeing reruns of their favorite shows?) The fact that some series don't make a profit until they are syndicated makes this aspect of durability particularly important. In the next module we'll look at cable and satellite TV services. |
By this I mean that you taste in television programs probably doesn't coincide with that of normal (average)
U.S. viewers. This is the LCD or lowest common dominator target audience we discussed in a previous module.
the game. The same with television programming.
Deciding on a target audience also involves your advertisers. A show that has commercials for expensive cars, designer clothes, exotic vacation spots, and upscale restaurants will have to appeal to an audience that can afford these things. If you are trying to sell designer jeans, you don't want to buy commercial time in a show that appeals primarily to an older audience.
audience flow will tend to bring up the new or weak show through what is called the hammock effect.
higher security than classified nuclear documents--which only intensified the mystery. 
